A Powerhouse of Energy: Fruits and Veggies

By Hailey Shimon

My whole life I was taught that carnivory was the best route to strength and endurance, but now I’m learning that this may not be true. In the Roman Empire, the gladiators were highly prized fighters who got the most advanced training and medical care. Archeologists have recently recovered gladiators’ remains, and they found that their bones consisted of high levels of strontium. It is known that different food sources give different amounts of strontium in the bones, with high strontium levels in vegetarians, and low strontium levels in carnivores. So, when it was released that these ancient warriors had high strontium levels in their bones, it made me question everything that I had been taught about nutrition in the United States. Eating vegetables always seemed to be important, but no one had ever told me that eating vegetables is quite possibly more important than eating meat. I then continued to wonder if eating an abundance of fruits and vegetables could affect my energy levels, mood, and behavior. While comparing how human’s diets affect us emotionally, there is also a psychological and earthly connection. Not only is eating a plant-based diet beneficial to human behavior, mood, and physiology, but it is also very sustainable for the environment. I decided to research further into the issue of eating more vegetables and all the colors of the rainbow in my meals and observe my own energy levels and behavior during my four-week study abroad program in Ecuador.

After arriving in Ecuador, the very first meal I was provided with was so vibrant and colorful that I could not help but think, wow! This is so much more vibrant and appetizing than any other meal I have ever eaten at home. I was immediately attracted to the splashes of red, orange, and green. In Ecuador, I have noticed the extreme availability of all the colors of the rainbow in my food. This is supported, of course, by Ecuador’s year-round growing season. With hot summers and mild winters, farmers are able to grow crops during any month of the year. This is extremely beneficial to consumers as well because prices are very manageable. When a plate of food is set in front of me, I almost always have an immediate reaction of desire or disgust. Some are attracted to green, but it can mean various things to different people. For example, an investor and a farmer may both be excited to see the color green but in different ways. Color plays a ginormous role in the way animals around the world think and behave. Species can use color as a signal for sexual attraction, warning, or camouflage. For example, flowers attract bees with their bright color so that the bees will land on them and spread their pollen. Humans are the same way. When we see these brightly colored foods it is in our nature to be attracted to them. By giving into the temptation here in Ecuador I have found that it has been very beneficial to my health. After eating a meal, I didn’t feel like I have to go find a couch to sit or lay down on, I actually felt energized and I could continue with an afternoon walk or hike up the 13,000 ft volcano, Antisana. I wish I was able to learn how to eat this way earlier in life and U.S. marketing and advertisement would support healthy diets.

Some of the delicious and colorful meals I had in Ecuador

In the United States, obesity has become one of the greatest public health concerns in the modern world, and the Protein Leverage Hypothesis written by S.J. Simpson seems to offer a reason behind why this is the case. When a human eats a high carbohydrate diet, they have the tendency to overeat, as shown in the graph below. To get to 1500 KJ of protein, eating an unbalanced diet, a person must eat a surplus of calories to get to the desired amount of protein. Now imagine if the person ate strictly high-protein foods. They would obtain the goal without eating too many calories and be fuller faster. Additionally, if you take into consideration the quality of protein consumed it can lead you to be fully satisfied with a healthy portion size. Due to the U.S. marketing system, many people believe that meat, specifically beef, is a human’s highest source of protein, but this is misleading. In the 1930s there were numerous advertisements about how beneficial smoking cigarettes was and the best athletes in the world smoked, so you should too. Soon after Babe Ruth died of cancer from a lifetime of smoking cigarettes, people realized that this motto was actually a false advertisement. As this framework came crashing down, it was just in time for another big industry to sweep in and take over. The meat packing industry. They advertise meat as the solution to how you get big and strong, therefore inclining you to buy their products, and they make more money. When in fact, multiple food studies have shown that vegetables such as corn, broccoli, asparagus, brussels sprouts, artichokes, and many more have a higher quality protein than beef. This plant protein is a primary high-quality source that provides you with essential amino acids and increases endothelium blood flow. Another reason why cardiologists tell you to reduce meat intake after open heart surgery. Consuming plants as a primary source of protein will not only make you feel fuller faster, but it will also be very beneficial to limiting clogged arteries and improving blood flow.

A depiction of the Protein Leverage Hypothesis (from Simpson et al. 2005). Humans may regulate food intake based on acquiring sufficient protein. If so, eating an unbalanced, protein-poor diet can result in excess intake of carbohydrate + fat (indicated by point 1 in the figure).

Human behavior and mood not only improve with a high protein plant-based diet but there is a reason why. Human physiological makeup was designed to consume and digest tough plant fibers. The digestive tract of humans is very long, stretching over 30ft in length. This provides plenty of time for dense plant fibers to break down and be digested. Whereas an animal like a lion or tiger only has a three-to-seven-foot digestive tract, which is ideal for consuming meat. It does not allow the harmful bacteria to sit and multiply in their system, also explaining how these animals do not get food poisoning. Another distinct physical difference between humans and well-known carnivores is our teeth. Carnivores have distinctive teeth, and they are shaped like scissors or triangles in order to shred the meat off their prey’s bones. Humans have flat square teeth for molars, a shape perfect for crushing and grinding tough plant tissues. For all these reasons, our bodies were designed to consume vegetables and it is in our best interest to listen to these signals. People who do listen, are rewarded with higher energy levels and an overall more positive outlook on life and behavior.  

Eating plant-based food is not only physiologically beneficial to humans, but it is also more sustainable for the environment. The meat, dairy, livestock agriculture, and fish farming industries use over 83% of the world’s farmland, yet only provide 18% of the world’s calories. This makes the use of our resources extremely inefficient. Animals such as cows, pigs, or chickens are the middleman and consume, on average, six times more protein than they produce. On top of that, growing their animal feed requires vast amounts of land, making it one of the leading drivers of deforestation. The world could be a much more vibrant and livelier place if we limit our consumption of big monopoly meat-packing businesses.

In conclusion, after lots of research and personal experimentation, there are many reasons why eating a plant-based diet is beneficial. It improves mood, leads to a better environment, and is also in our physiological makeup to eat this way. However, I do understand that eating fresh fruits and vegetables is easier said than done in some parts of the world. In Ecuador, there are roadside stands that sell vibrant fruits and vegetables around every corner. I could walk outside my door and buy fresh fruit for a very low price. For this reason, I realize that eating these colorful meals I ate during my time in Ecuador is going to be extremely hard to replicate when I move back home to Minnesota. The cost is outrageous and there are very limited resources. Although it may be harder to eat a plant-based diet in Minnesota, I am still going to try. I have proven to myself that eating this way not only makes me happier but also gives me more energy, and I hope to have inspired someone else to try eating more fruits and vegetables. Even a small change in one meal per day could make the world of a difference.

Works Cited

“Food and Climate Change: Healthy Diets for a Healthier Planet.” United Nations, United Nations, https://www.un.org/en/climatechange/science/climate-issues/food#:~:text=Plant%2Dbased%20foods%20%E2%80%93%20such%20as,intensities%20than%20animal%2Dbased%20foods. 

“Here Are the Real Facts about Humans and Meat.” PETA, 3 Feb. 2022, https://www.peta.org/living/food/really-natural-truth-humans-eating-meat/#:~:text=Humans’%20intestinal%20tracts%20are%20much,for%20humans%20to%20eat%20meat.

Medical University of Vienna. “Roman Gladiators ate a mostly vegetarian diet and drank a tonic of   ashes after training.” ScienceDaily. ScienceDaily, 20 October 2014. www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/10/141020090006.htm

Simpson, S.J. and Raubenheimer, D. (2005), Obesity: the protein leverage hypothesis. Obesity Reviews, 6: 133-142. https://doi-org.ezproxy.stthomas.edu/10.1111/j.1467-789X.2005.00178.x

“Why We Prefer Certain Colors.” Psychology Today, Sussex Publishers, https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/the-new-brain/201104/why-we-prefer-certain-colors. 

Friendly Communities of Ecuador vs. Isolated Environments in the U.S

By Ashley Hatch

What makes humans feel more “human”? I found myself asking this as I walked the bustling streets of the historical center in Quito, Ecuador. I wondered why I felt more connected and invited to the people and environment I was in than other cities I have been to, like Chicago and Los Angeles. From the constant smells of restaurants and cafés to the melody a joyful woman singing along to the playing of a guitar, each of my senses was frequently activated. Outside of the historical center, taxis are constantly honking to attract riders and buses fly by overflowing with people. The energy of the city feels different. My attention is constantly being drawn, but not in a necessarily stressful way.

These experiences have led me to wonder whether Quito provides a better environment for the psychological well-being of human beings because it is more vibrant, encourages human interaction of life that may reduce common stresses found within American cities due to urbanization.

A view from the historical center of Quito toward the Virgin of the Panecillo statue

One noteworthy and inspiring aspect of Quito is color. As seen within the picture, the city provides stimulating colors that go against the typical black and white colors urbanization tends to follow. This is important because color is more than the paint on a building. Tints, shades, and designs all sum up to being “responsible for a series of conscious and subconscious stimuli in our “phyco-spatial relationship”. In other words, color draws us in (whether we realize it or not) and is able to fuel specific emotions with just a glance. Plus, emotions are one of the aspects of life that make us who we are. Looking back at the picture above, the brilliant orange in the building to the left stimulates a certain emotion. According to archdaily, the orange of this building projects “creativity” and “enthusiasm”. Orange painted on a building is something I am not so familiar with in the U.S., but I wish I was. Other examples of color-psychology discussed in the article include blue (positivity, confidence, and security), yellow (optimism, curiosity, and joviality), and green (calm, tranquility, and serenity). Quito provides the common viewer with buildings of these countless colors ranging in shade, tint, etc. Through varying colors of buildings and walls within a city, I believe it is comforting to note that what you feel when you see a building is the same as thousands (even millions) of other individuals do.

Aside from the colors of buildings, the graffiti on buildings, walls, and fences add to the vivacious nature of Quito. In my experience of North American cities, there is graffiti. However, none have left me with the emotional impact that the capital city of Ecuador has. Initially, I believed that graffiti was a form of vandalization or markings with associations to violence. This is not always the case. Graffiti is nothing short of art, especially in Quito. The artform is beautiful, thought-provoking, and engaging. During my graffiti tour of Quito, I learned that the art medium can tell a story. For example, when touring a lengthy wall in the city, I learned about the symbols and themes that were present on a certain wall. These artists were sending a message that people needed to pay more attention to what is going on in the Amazon: the exploitation of resources and indigenous communities. In an article by Diego Barragán and Jéssica Moina, graffiti in Quito is no stranger to symbols to deliver messages such as exploitation. For instance, indigenous women in graffiti art tend to be identified with jewelry, hat feathers, and an elegant face.

On my tour, I had the opportunity to try out graffiti in a park designated for anyone wanting to legally spray paint. In the picture above, I could not think of anything clever to do other than my nickname. However, when my tour guide asked us to reflect on how spray painting made us feel, I recognized that to me, I felt powerful and free. These are common feelings tied with art and graffiti. In an article from socialworktoday.com, the art of graffiti “encourages empathy” that raises “social awareness”. Another quote that stood out to be in the article is that because “it interacts with the environment, the history, and relationships that exist in a particular place, public art establishes a sense of place in a particularly powerful way”. To reiterate, a sense of place and belonging is essential to human well-being. Thus, because art like graffiti holds many social and mental health benefits, it is essential to both express oneself along with analyzing others’ art because it connects us to each other and the environment.

Graffiti we created on our graffiti tour of Quito

Feeling connected to others and the environment is essential. North American cities are not equipping its citizens with the correct environment for this feeling to be achieved, regardless of the improvement of technology and transportation. In fact, these cities are suffering from what is commonly referred to as “urban loneliness”. According to an article in CBC, this increase in loneliness can lead to “increased risks for heart disease, anxiety, depression, and dementia”. These risks, according to the article, are caused by the area. The layout of urban environments in the United States are “designed to cut people off from each other”. For instance, there are buildings built for “one-bedroom studio condos” and vast parking lots for vehicles. Cars are prioritized in the design of North American cities. For example, in 2015, cities and towns across America reported to have “92% of people travel to their workplace by car, while less than 3% of commuters go on foot”. As a result, individuals are physically cut off from others in their living space and commute.

This is where Quito thrives. Through my experience of living in Ecuador’s capital for a month, it is evident there are an abundance of ways in which the city allows the people to interact with each other and avoid the daunting urban loneliness pandemic. For instance, many citizens do not live alone. Through conversations with individuals living in Quito and surrounding areas, people commonly live with both immediate and/or distant family members. Undoubtedly, this way of living saves some money, but it can be assumed this saves an individual from being lonely if they are surrounded by loved ones.

Urban loneliness can be avoided through the city’s easy access to public transportation. Although Quito is no stranger to traffic of cars and trucks (as seen in the United States), access to affordable buses, taxis, and soon to be Metra is all within walking distance no matter where one lives. The city encourages walking, too. For instance, there are days that are designated for pedestrians to walk, allowing for more human-to-human interaction.

So, what does it mean to feel more human? I was able to find the answer in Quito. I believe that there are key aspects of one’s environment that can stimulate this feeling of humanness. By first looking at color in architecture, Quito does not steer away from exciting yellows to bold blues. Architecture is not the only aspect of the city that resembles stimulating color: the graffiti on buildings of main roads paints the city, too. Using color and art in the city, one feels connected emotionally. Along with inspired emotions throughout the city, the layout of the capital encourages social interaction with others around you, alleviating the so-called “urban loneliness”. Finally, it is easy to feel connected with yourself and others due to the more relaxed pace the city seems to follow.

Overall, Quito is a great model to follow when considering cities that connect its citizens to each other and their environment. With my experience in cities across North America, there is a thick line separating the flow of life compared to South American cities like Quito. No city is perfect, though, and I believe that cities improve by focusing on doing what is good for the people, rather than what follows car-centric urbanization guidelines. Nonetheless, Quito is a fantastic city to live in when considering what it means to be human.

Is Bigger Always Better?

by Sydney Brady

I have been living at an altitude of roughly 10,000 feet for the last month. The environmental demands of Ecuador’s mountainous landscape turn out to be quite physically demanding as well. I climbed up a mountain 14,000 feet in altitude just adjacent from Antisana, the fourth largest volcano in Ecuador. At the base of the mountain, I was feeling physically equipped and ready for the task – and then we started the hike. My heart was pounding out of my chest, and it felt like someone had removed half of the oxygen that I so desperately needed. However, the most note-worthy part was when we got to the top, my group and I started telling one another our heart rates to see who returned to their baseline the quickest – and it was Paula, our Ecuadorian host, who has lived in Quito her whole life and is accustomed to the altitude. I wonder how many red points she has compared to me (haha). Besides the potential differences in physical fitness (Paula is scheduled to run in the Chicago marathon this fall), I wondered how her physiological mechanisms allowed her to reach homeostasis before all my classmates and myself as we are all generally healthy, young adults.  

Sydney, flanked by Alena and Ashley, in front of vulcan Antisana (with a less obstructed view on the right)

Spending the last month in Ecuador has piqued my interest in how and why human features vary across environmental conditions. As a lifeguard instructor and EMT, I’ve developed a keen interest in understanding how the human body works. Now, in Ecuador, I’ve observed numerous species of non-human animals and their behavior; familiar ones such as dogs, horses, and cats, along with some not-so-familiar such as llamas, donkeys, and guinea pigs. However, my interest in humans has been in the forefront of my curiosity. The purpose of this investigation is to examine the physical adaptations and characteristics that are beneficial for individuals residing in high altitude environments, with a focus on the interplay between nutrition and genetics through an evolutionary lens.  

According to a study conducted in 2017, the average height for males in Ecuador was measured to be 5’ 6″, with females averaging at 5’ ½”.  As a 5’ 4” individual myself, I have noticed that in Ecuador, on average, there are more people who are eye-level with me. This is a big contrast to the US where I am typically looked down upon simply due to my height.

Human height is a complex trait that is influenced by genetic and environmental factors. For instance, altitude, diet, and nutrition can all play a role in determining an individual’s height. From an evolutionary perspective, height may have been positively selected for in certain populations due to its advantages in hunting and gathering, as well as in social interactions. However, height may also have been negatively selected against in certain environments where taller individuals were at a disadvantage, such as in areas where resources were limited. Additionally, taller individuals may have had higher energy expenditure and were more susceptible to certain diseases.  

One of our delicious meals in Quito

In general, people living in highland regions of Ecuador, such as the Andes, are shorter than those living in the coastal regions. One study, “Anthropometric and Body Composition Among Genotype Controlled Indigenous Adult Kiwcha Natives Living at Low (230 M) and High Altitude (3,800 M) in Ecuador” found that individuals living in the highlands of Ecuador had lower height and lower body mass index (BMI) compared to those living in coastal regions. This difference was likely due to a combination of environmental and nutritional factors, such as altitude, temperature, and UV radiation, as well as limited access to food and clean water in highland regions. Additionally, traditional diets in highland regions are often based on potatoes and other root vegetables, which are lower in protein and other essential nutrients. In contrast, coastal populations in Ecuador have access to a wider variety of foods and generally have better nutrition. Another study, mentioned in the 2007 book, “Nutritional Failure in Ecuador: Causes, Consequences, and Solutions”, found that people living in highland regions of Ecuador consumed a diet that was high in carbohydrates and low in protein, compared to those living in coastal regions as the consumption of animal meat varies. The study found that the main sources of protein for people in the highlands were potatoes, corn, and beans, while people in coastal regions had a more diverse diet that included fish and other seafood. These dietary differences may partially account for why people living in coastal regions tend to be taller than those living in the highlands. However, height differences among groups is likely the result of a complex interplay between nutrition and other environmental factors.  

The study of animal and human behavior has been a topic of interest in various fields of biology, with the subfields of ethology, comparative psychology, and animal sociology providing a foundation for the field of evolutionary biology. Ethology studies animal behavior in natural settings, comparative psychology focuses on the behavior and mental processes of animals in a laboratory, and animal sociology examines social behavior and social organization in animals. Sociobiology, introduced in the 1970s, suggests that social behavior in organisms can be explained through evolutionary principles, but this view is controversial due to its emphasis on genetic effects. Social Darwinism, which emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, applies Darwin’s theory of natural selection to human society and is associated with the belief in the superiority of certain races or classes and their dominance over others. However, Social Darwinism was discredited in animal behavior as it assumes that only the strongest individuals will survive and reproduce, neglecting the influence of both physical characteristics and social behaviors on survival and reproduction. Darwin’s theory of natural selection is a scientific explanation of the frequency of traits in a population over time, but does not explain what is moral or ethical, or justify any social or political agenda.  

Transitioning into the topic of manual labor in mountainous environments, evolutionary biology can offer a unique perspective on the advantages of certain physical traits. Evolutionary psychology posits that behavior is shaped by natural selection and that certain behaviors have evolved to increase survival and reproduction. Evolutionary biology also helps explain the diversity of animal behavior as different selective pressures lead to different solutions to the same adaptive problem. For instance, the ability to recognize and remember faces, which is critical for social interactions, is an adaptation to the problem of dealing with many individuals in a group. In high altitude environments, individuals with a shorter stature and smaller lung capacity may have an advantage in terms of oxygen efficiency. This is due to the lower atmospheric pressure at high altitudes results in a lower concentration of oxygen. Shorter individuals require less oxygen to sustain their bodies, and smaller lung capacities may lead to more efficient oxygen utilization. In such environments, natural selection may have favored individuals with these traits, as they were more likely to survive and reproduce. It’s important to note that evolutionary biology both an animal’s genes and its current environment and experiences interact to shape their behavior and responses. 

Now, this information has led me to question if being shorter is a bad thing. Being shorter in height and having smaller feet may be advantageous in certain ecological contexts. In the context of high-altitude environments like the Andes in Ecuador, shorter stature and smaller feet may be advantageous due to the lower levels of oxygen and the physically demanding manual labor in mountainous terrain. For example, a study conducted in the Andes found that individuals with smaller feet and shorter stature reported lower levels of fatigue and muscle soreness after manual labor compared to those with larger feet and taller stature. This suggests that having smaller feet and a shorter stature may have evolved as adaptations to manual labor in mountainous environments, allowing individuals to navigate uneven terrain and maintain stability on slopes with greater ease and efficiency, improving their chances of survival. It’s possible that these physical adaptations are a result of environmental factors like altitude, as well as genetic or nutritional factors. However, it’s also worth noting that while these physical adaptations may be beneficial in certain contexts, such as manual labor in mountainous terrain, they may not be important or beneficial in other contexts, such as in urban environments or sedentary jobs. Overall, the way that physical adaptations, resource availability, and culture interact with each other is complex, and more research is needed to fully understand the mechanisms behind these adaptations. 

Although, it seems to me that this evidence suggests that bigger (and taller) is not always better. 

Resources 

Baye, K., & Hirvonen, K. (2020). Evaluation of Linear Growth at Higher Altitudes. JAMA Pediatrics, 174(10), 977–984. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2020.2386 

Beall, C.M. (2002), High altitude: An exploration of human adaptation. Am. J. Hum. Biol., 14: 786-787. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajhb.10096 

Julian, C. G., Wilson, M. J., & Moore, L. G. (2009). Evolutionary adaptation to high altitude: A view from in utero. American Journal of Human Biology : The Official Journal of the Human Biology Council, 21(5), 614–622. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajhb.20900 

Little, M. A. (1981). Human Populations in the Andes: The Human Science Basis for Research Planning. Mountain Research and Development, 1(2), 145–170. https://doi.org/10.2307/3673120 

Martin-Casado, L., Barquín, C., Aldana-Caballero, A., Marcos-Tejedor, F., & Aguado, X. (2021). Environmental Factors as a Cause of Differences in the Feet of Ecuadorian Children and Its Relation to Their Footwear. Children, 8(6), 459. https://doi.org/10.3390/children8060459 

Moore, L. G., Niermeyer, S., & Zamudio, S. (1998). Human adaptation to high altitude: regional and life-cycle perspectives. American journal of physical anthropology, Suppl 27, 25–64. https://doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1096-8644(1998)107:27+<25::aid-ajpa3>3.0.co;2-l 

Ortiz-Prado, E., Mendieta, G., Simbaña-Rivera, K., Gomez, L., Landazuri, S., Vásconez, J., Calvopiña, M., & Viscor, G. (2021). Anthropometric and Body Composition Differences Among Genotype Controlled Indigenous Adult Kiwcha Natives Living at Low (230 M) and High Altitude (3,800 M) in Ecuador. https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-917384/v1 

Sociedad, R. (2017, October 24). La estatura de los Ecuatorianos se incrementó en cuatro décadas. El Telégrafo. Retrieved January 29, 2023, from https://www.eltelegrafo.com.ec/noticias/sociedad/6/la-estatura-de-los-ecuatorianos-se-incremento-en-cuatro-decadas&nbsp;

Themes, U. F. O. (2021, July 25). High Altitude Residents. Thoracic Key. Retrieved January 29, 2023, from https://thoracickey.com/high-altitude-residents/#sec4_3  

World Bank. (2007). Nutritional Failure in Ecuador. The World Bank. https://doi.org/10.1596/978-0-8213-7019-3 

Mental Health and Environmental Mismatch in Global Cultures

By Alena Wadzinske

Belonging is a vital part of human health and happiness. Finding a group that one fits in with, feels accepted with, is a relief and encourages returning to that group. Feeling accepted is freeing and comforting, and people seek this feeling their entire lives. The environment we live in, however, may impact this search for belonging in ways one would never consider.

Labels separate countries and suggest that developed nations are superior: developed countries, a label associated with high gross domestic product (GDP), likely value individualism at the expense of the group while undeveloped countries, a label associated with low GDP, likely value collectivism over individualism. The more individualist communities in developed countries are novel in human history while the more collectivist communities in undeveloped countries are more reflective of tribalism throughout human history. Creating an environment that is relatively new to humans may cause the human body to not be appropriately adapted to this environment, a concept termed evolutionary mismatch. The yearning to belong is universal and likely follows from the evolutionary mismatch experienced in modernized environments. Meanwhile, some environments embody more traditional styles of living.

One factor a lack of belonging impacts is mental health; mental health is affected by interactions with one’s community, one’s environment, and oneself. My recent experiences in Ecuador have caused me to consider whether indigenous cultures emphasizing balance and interconnectedness have cultural protective factors promoting mental health while reducing the likelihood of evolutionary mismatch.             

Spending time in Ecuador has immersed me into multiple traditional communities. Many indigenous cultures are collectivist communities that emphasize balance and connection, two protective factors for mental health. Listening to Rogelio Simbaña, a permaculture expert living in Tumbaco (one of the valleys surrounding Quito), I learned how life is circular: to embrace life, we need to embrace our connection with food, animals, and the earth. Rogelio, with great passion, exposed me to an entirely new perspective I had never experienced in the United States. Rogelio emphasized our interconnectedness and impact of actions. The three main principles of his culture are sharing, sharing goods and services, and sharing successes. For me, a culture with these values embodies connection and community. When traveling to Pintag Amaru, an Andean agricultural community movement that promotes ancestral knowledge, I saw the collectivism and interconnectedness in how people interacted with others and with me: they were incredibly kind and welcoming. Land and labor are shared within the Pintag community, and members treat each other like a loving family. The community area of Pintag Amaru includes the building Casa Amaru, where we shared lunch with the Pintag community.

Rogelio Simbaña at his home in Tumbaco, explaining how the values of permaculture are integrated into the culture of his indigenous community.

The National Alliance on Mental Illness (NAMI) describes how Indigenous peoples often emphasize and value connectedness within the community and with nature, as well as nurturing traditions: NAMI identifies these traits as protective factors for mental health. However, it is vital to note that the discrimination and trauma faced in Indigenous communities that are negative for mental health. Indigenous communities integrate mental health protective factors into their daily lives. Even with systemic challenges, the community connections produce these strong bonds and protective factors. Rogelio focused on these strong bonds with other people, animals, and nature. The Pintag Amaru community practices gratitude ceremonies toward nature and assists other community members in times of need. Connections are vital based on our evolutionary history and our present day knowledge, and the indigenous communities I experienced in Ecuador embody connection. From my experiences, the value of interpersonal relationships is undervalued in the United States especially when compared to academic and career success.

Pintag Amaru community members and University of St. Thomas students gathering in front of Casa Amaru.  

Cultures and countries around the world are shifting toward individualist cultures instead of the historically prominent collectivist cultures. A 2017 study from Santos and colleagues confirmed this trend by observing that individualism is rising in practices and values in the observed 78 countries. Thus, it is likely that this is representative of a trend across the world. The movement toward individualism could also represent evolutionary mismatch: in evolutionary history, individuals who took advantage of a situation to benefit themselves were more likely to succeed. Today, however, there are a plethora of opportunities for individuals, especially in urban environments. Focusing on these opportunities for oneself exemplifies individualism, and the behavior can become excessive when it takes away from other aspects of life. Individualism is self-focused and not other-focused, eroding the value of forming the relationships that contribute to mental health. Many communities today have bonds based on surface-level factors, formed through technology and social media. These weak bonds do not provide the necessary relationships that humans desire. E.O. Wilson, in his 2012 book The Social Conquest of Earth, describes how modern day groups are similar to tribes, and these groups provide individuals with pleasure, meaning, and identity. Tribes, organized in small communities, were the standard in hunter-gatherer and nomadic societies. These tight-knit groups relied on each other for survival, so their connections held strong and provided purpose. While such groups are still present, global culture is increasingly individualistic. Nomadic societies and small tribal groups are significantly less common now than they were throughout human history. During my Ecuador experience, being in a group of individuals from the University of St. Thomas provided comfort and reassurance while exploring a new area. Acknowledging that, meeting others beyond my group provided novel and valuable educational experiences. Experiencing a small indigenous culture has altered my perspective and has caused me to reflect on how the people around me and my relationships are what truly matter in life.

Mental health issues present today could be worsened by the movement toward individualism. Individualism places less emphasis on belonging and acceptance, thus placing additional stress on emotional well-being. The change in the cultural environment makes mental health issues more pronounced and detrimental due to the individualism evolutionary mismatch. In his book 2019 Good Reasons for Bad Feelings, Randolph Nesse explains the value in ultimate explanations – looking at evolutionary history and ancestral benefits for a trait – when investigating mental health issues. These feelings and conditions that have morphed into the mental health issues we see today have evolutionary implications: this leads to the concept of evolutionary mismatch. Environmental mismatch is the idea that an individual is not adaptively suited to their current environment because of rapid evolutionary change. For humans, this evolutionary change has been driven by human actions that have engineered environments to meet some of their needs. To look at one example, Barbara Stranger, a geneticist from the University of Chicago, explains how strong immune systems are beneficially resistant to disease, but overactive immune systems are involved in psychiatric disorders (Reardon 2017). Something that is beneficial to our ancestors, and beneficial to us today in some aspects, could have been selected for with an indirect relationship to mental health. In their recent integratory research of evolutionary psychology, Hoogland and Ploeger (2022) have found preliminary evidence that mental health disorders are more prominent in modernized societies compared to nonindustrial societies. More traditional and collectivist communities, like indigenous communities, do not experience as great of conflict because they have not drastically changed their environment. For me, strong familial bonds among the individuals in Pintag, regardless of whether they are biologically related, are a concrete example of this finding. The ancestral recognition and current relationships in Pintag help to create a sense of purpose and meaning.

The labels placed on countries because of their GDP are misleading, as developed countries promoting individualism do not have the same protective factors that undeveloped countries do. “Developing” countries tend to emphasize balance and connection, providing a meaning that is a protective factor against mental health disorders. Furthermore, undeveloped countries contain an environment that aligns better with human’s evolutionary past, reducing the evolutionary mismatch experienced in developed countries. Individualism is increasing around the world, yet indigenous cultures retain the values and community that facilitate belonging and purpose. Valuing people more than money, connections more than GDP, has perspective shattering implications: so-called undeveloped countries may provide more mental health benefits than developed countries. After all, health is wealth.

Old Dog, New Tricks: The Behavioral Model of Canine Aging

This post is by Grace McElmury

“Old age” — a phrase that summons visuals of grey hair, wrinkles, and newfound difficulties with everyday tasks. The process of senescing is associated with declinations both physiologically and mentally, with organs and tissues significantly decreasing in functionality. Most animal species, however, do not fully undergo these changes. Competition, predation, illness, and other natural forces prevent animals from living a long enough life to age in this way.

When it comes to the sheltered lives led by domestic animals and people, however, these factors are rendered almost nonexistent. Modern advances in both human and veterinary medicine have also increased the lifespans of both humans and the animals we share our homes and lives with.

This unique situation allows for very clear senescing processes, and continuing research as to how and why aging occurs. In these studies, one of the most extensively utilized aging progressions is that of canines. They function as widely available subjects in this process, with genetic similarities across the species but differences in terms of breeds, and data is well documented on differences that occur in senior dogs. As dogs age, they undergo complicated behavioral changes, all of which are necessary to understand in order to appreciate the aging process and take better care of “man’s best friend,” as well as to provide important insights into this same process in humans.

As domesticated dogs transition from adult to senior, they undergo changes consistent with the “typical” aging process. Aside from obvious physical changes, researchers have conducted an array of studies to determine what this process looks like behaviorally. Many of these methods consist of surveys or experimentation with a focus on cognition, including memory. There are breed-based differences in when aging-related changes occur, but aging in canines generally shows reduced memory and physical control, as well as changes in curiosity and responses to social stimuli, learning ability, and attention. Older dogs were shown to have decreased approaching and following behaviors towards humans, indicating lessened social motivation. Some symptoms of aging have impacts on the overall health of the animal as well, as older canines tend to have increased water intake but be less inclined to eat. However, one of the major components that determines the health of aging is changes that occur within the brain.

Complex behavioral changes associated with senescing in dogs are not always “normal,”and some can possibly be traced back to development of neurological differences. A decrease in brain volume, particularly in the frontal cortex (as well as atrophication of this part of the brain) has been associated with senior dogs. This can be potentially correlated with Amyloid-beta (Aβ) peptide deposition, which has been studied to cause behavioral changes in older dogs. One study in particular found that the deposition of this peptide typically consisted of Aβ42 specifically, with a correlation between this deposition and declines in “maintenance behavior,” such as sleep and eating/drinking habits. These changes can lead to Canine Cognitive Dysfunction Syndrome, or CDS, characterized by symptoms resembling human dementia that have no other underlying medical cause. Similarities such as this one have led to a representation of human aging. Due to their likenesses, the scientific understanding of aging in dogs has begun to be used as a model to understand the aging process in humans. A key to this is the fact that pet dogs

share similar lifestyles as humans, and are exposed to similar toxins and dietary fulfillment, therefore creating a control environment for this comparison. Dogs are a very common and accessible subject for these types of studies, and are known to progress through a similar decline in functionality as they age, leading to the development of epigenetic clocks that correlate dog age with human age. This process also occurs in a shorter timeframe than that of human aging — usually less than 20 years, with each year of a dog’s life equivalent to anywhere between 5-15 human years. This makes it simpler for researchers to study aging over the course of the animal’s lifetime.

Cognitively, dogs are one of a few species that are very similar to humans, making them ideal to study neurological aging. Declines in brain performance in both dogs and humans seemingly come from the same neuropathological sources. The Aβ accumulation found in dogs can also be found in humans, and CDS in dogs parallels Alzheimer’s Disease in humans. While these sources of neurological changes are of applicable use to continue to investigate sources of aging disorders, further research focuses on stopping the development of many of these changes.

As investigation continues to determine precise components of how and why aging occurs, other experimentation is delving into preventative measures to slow the process. In canines in particular, nutrition is a key focus. Supplementation of vitamins and proper nutrition seems to be important in preventing not only physical issues associated with common conditions such as weight gain or arthritis, but also neurological issues. One study in particular focused on, over a long period of time, supplementing canine diets with medium-chain triglycerides, which are a shorter-chain fat found in foods such as coconut oil. They found that these fats supplied the

brain with a different kind of energy, and significantly decreased the display of many traits associated with CDS. Another topic of focus is how enrichment throughout a dog’s lifetime can impact development of neurological dysfunction. With a focus on brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) mRNA levels — impacting memory and learning — one study determined that, combined with a high antioxidant diet, added enrichment in the subject animals’ environments heightened BDNF mRNA levels. These increased amounts were related to bettered mental function in old age. If some of these strategies are shown to prevent certain neurological disorders of aging in dogs, there is the potential that similar approaches may be applied to humans, such as modifying diets or utilizing activities that exercise the brain, in order to find more natural solutions to mitigate the senescing process.

The study of evolution and behavior changes in aging dogs is a complex field, but one that could provide broader implications as it becomes better understood. As dogs age, they can develop “normal” symptoms of growing older, but they may also develop changes consistent

Killing Inspiration

This post is by Alex Welter

You are taking a walk on a beautiful spring day and happen to be wearing a bright yellow shirt and sweet-scented perfume when you hear a faint buzz under your nose. You look down toward the sound and spot a honeybee (Apis mellifera) as it lands on your chest. The memory of your last bee sting suddenly comes to mind and you begin frantically swatting at the bee. Fortunately for you and the bee, you miss and the bee flies away to find a new source of pollen. What you did not realize in that moment of fear was that the little honeybee was a worker bee foraging for resources to bring back to the hive. The bee was executing his role in the complex social system honeybees use (Johnson, 2010) that allows for optimal colony survival and incidentally, makes the species the most frequent pollinator of crops worldwide (Hung et al., 2018). For this system to run so efficiently, honeybees must use clear forms of communication (Menzel, 2019) to coordinate group functions (Peters et al., 2018), and be flexible and resilient in the face of critical loss. Additionally, like few species other than Homo sapiens, expression of altruistic behaviors in honeybees are not significantly affected by decreases in relatedness between individuals (Naeger et al., 2013). These behaviors, detailed further below, can serve as a model from which humans can gain useful knowledge about efficient, cooperative social systems that optimize group success.

To appreciate the value of the model of social organization honeybees offer, you must first understand the complex way in which they divide labor in the hive. Whether a honeybee is a sterile worker or reproductive female queen, or male drone depends on genetic factors and what they are fed as larva (Latrorff et al., 2013). The bee you encountered on your walk was likely a worker of the forager caste, a specialized behavioral group within eusocial populations of animals, and was likely mature. The maturity of the bee is distinguishable because the division of labor in a hive follows a model of temporal polyethism which refers to an age-correlated designation of tasks in a group (Hung et al., 2018).

Temporal polyethism in honeybees enables optimal production of labor at each stage of life considering physical and morphological capabilities. Transitions between labor castes involve a push-pull mechanism related to worker development and inter-caste interactions (Johnson, 2010). When bees are born, they cannot fly or sting, so their first few days are spent cleaning hive cells while they develop and learn from more mature bees. Once they develop further, bees become part of the nurse caste feeding the brood as well as acting as assistants to the queen helping relay communicative pheromones (elaborated on later) from the queen to workers throughout the hive as needed (Kocher et al., 2009). The transition from nurse to middle-aged bee (MAB) is dependent on both the size of the brood, a larger brood calls for a larger nurse caste, and replacement (push) by newly emerged bees (Johnson, 2010). MAB’s take on a variety of tasks including nest building, guarding the nest entrance, and receiving and processing nectar from foragers. Direct interaction with foragers and demand for replacement of them are factors that regulate the “pull” of MAB workers into the forager caste (Johnson, 2010). In the winter, all bees in the hive become generalists, doing whatever needs to be done around the hive to protect the queen and keep the colony alive. This exemplary model of labor division in honeybees could not work without effective forms of communication between workers.

Push-pull caste system governing division of labor in honeybees (Johnson, 2010)

Communication is key in any social system, the greater the complexity of the system, the more fine-tuned the line of communication needs to be between superior and subordinate individuals, and between subordinate groups. Communication between the queen and the workers represents the former. The queen uses pheromones produced by the mandibular glands called queen mandibular pheromones (QMP) to elicit desired behavioral responses from workers by the relay of QMP by nurses. The chemical composition of QMP depends on the reproductive state of the queen. Naturally mated queens have been shown to elicit the greatest response from the workers compared to synthetically inseminated and virgin queens (Kocher et al., 2009). QMP dictates worker behavior and inhibits ovary development of potentially reproductive workers until it is time to rear the next queen. One behavior this can elicit is the coordinated fanning of the hive entrance to cool down the hive in warm seasons (Peters et al., 2019).

The queen does have strong influence over the behaviors of the workers, but with the substantial number of them, workers must communicate amongst themselves to fulfill the hive’s needs. A fascinating example of this is the communication of plentiful foraging locations between foragers using the waggle dance. Foragers that find resources return to the hive and perform a dance that represents the flight path to the foraging location. There is evidence that foragers watching the dance develop a cognitive map to the location (Menzel, 2019). Though the methods of communication bees use may differ significantly from humans, the efficiency and precision with which the needs of the hive are communicated to individuals that can provide may educate communication in humans.

Worker honeybees coordinating the fanning of hot air out of the hive and cool air into the hive

            Another characteristic of honeybees that offers a source of inspiration for humans is their surprising flexibility and resilience in the face of critical loss. It is commonly thought that when the queen of a hive dies, the colony slowly dies off, however, there is evidence that bees can adapt and go on without their queen. How is this possible? With the loss of the queen comes the loss of QMP detection by worker bees and consequently the behaviors they elicited and inhibited in workers. One function QMP serves is the inhibition of ovary development in potentially reproductive female workers (Kocher et al., 2009). Once the queen dies, reproductive workers can develop ovaries and reproduce effectively (Naeger et al., 2013). Based on Kin selection theory and Hamilton’s rule, it is assumed that altruistic behaviors in queenless honeybee colonies would significantly decrease as the degree of relatedness of bees in the colony would decrease when the sisters of the colony begin to reproduce. When this was tested experimentally, degree of altruism did not significantly decrease as expected (Naeger et al., 2013). With humans being one of very few species that exhibit similar forms of altruistic behavior toward relatives of all degrees of relatedness and even non-relatives, altruism in honeybees inspires an attitude of inclusiveness in the face of adversity.

With this intricate social system involving efficient division of labor, effective communication, and altruistic behavior toward hive mates irrespective of degree of relatedness honeybees provide examples that can inspire human social systems. Unfortunately, this source of inspiration may be put at risk by future changes in climate (Nielson et al., 2017) caused by human engineered alterations to the environment. Human application of the examples of cooperative and altruistic behavior honeybees present can encourage necessary change to human cooperative behavior that may reverse our destructive path that is killing our inspiration. What we need is a powerful human waggle dance that guides our species in the right direction.

How foragers interpret the waggle dance as a map to a foraging location

References

Hung, K. J., Kingston, J. M., Albrecht, M., Holway, D. A., & Kohn, J. R. (2018). The worldwide importance of honey bees as pollinators in natural habitats. Proceedings. Biological sciences, 285(1870), 20172140. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2017.2140

Johnson B. R. (2010). Division of labor in honeybees: form, function, and proximate mechanisms. Behavioral ecology and sociobiology, 64(3), 305–316. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00265-009-0874-7

Kocher, S. D., Richard, F. J., Tarpy, D. R., & Grozinger, C. M. (2009). Queen reproductive state modulates pheromone production and queen-worker interactions in honeybees. Behavioral ecology: official journal of the International Society for Behavioral Ecology, 20(5), 1007–1014. https://doi.org/10.1093/beheco/arp090

Lattorff, H. M., & Moritz, R. F. (2013). Genetic underpinnings of division of labor in the honeybee (Apis mellifera). Trends in genetics : TIG, 29(11), 641–648. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tig.2013.08.002  

Menzel R. (2019). The Waggle Dance as an Intended Flight: A Cognitive Perspective. Insects, 10(12), 424. https://doi.org/10.3390/insects10120424

Naeger, N. L., Peso, M., Even, N., Barron, A. B., & Robinson, G. E. (2013). Altruistic behavior by egg-laying worker honeybees. Current biology : CB, 23(16), 1574–1578. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2013.06.045

Nielsen, A., Reitan, T., Rinvoll, A., & Brysting, A. (2017). Effects of competition and climate on a crop pollinator community. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 246, 253–260. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2017.06.006

Peters, J. M., Peleg, O., & Mahadevan, L. (2019). Collective ventilation in honeybee nests. Journal of the Royal Society, Interface, 16(150), 20180561. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsif.2018.0561

Why Monogamous? The Costs and Benefits of Monogamous Relationships in Humans

This post is by Sophie Bowman

Monogamous relationships are often romanticized as a social ideal, a mechanism for individual happiness and social stability. However, monogamy is uncommon in animals, and rare in the majority of human societies. While different animal species exhibit different variations of social and genetic monogamy, humans exhibit multiple mating habits as well. In today’s modern societies, there are many relationship classifications including polyandrous, polygynous, monogamous, etc. However, in most monogamous marriages, they tend to be both pair-bonded and sexually exclusive. These relationships are coined ‘serially monogamous’ due to the often multiple monogamous partners over a reproductive career, likely after death or divorce (Schact). Serially monogamous relationships are un-beneficial for both sexes due to fitness benefits provided by multiple mating partners (Klug). Male reproductive success across a variety of taxonomic groups is limited by a lesser amount of female partners. Similarly, females also benefit from multiple mating partners with an increase in egg production and fertility rates (Klug). Thus, it can seem perplexing that monogamy is idealized in the majority of western societies. While it is beneficial in parental care, monogamy is not ideal for either relationship partners because it contrasts fitness benefits observed from polygamous relationships, indicated by rarity in human societies and uncommonity in animals.

Similar to different classifications of relationships, there are multiple distinctions between types of monogamy. One example are some South American groups where women have several regular sexual partners along with their husband (Schact). This is an example of the distinction between social and genetic monogamy. Social monogamy is defined as when two individuals cohabitate or enter a pair-bonded relationship for a specific period of time. This does not mean
that they are exclusive in mating. Genetic monogamy is the opposite, meaning that the pair is exclusive in fertilization and mating (Klug). Thus, despite the widespread value of serially monogamous relationships today, there are still many important concepts to understand regarding the costs and benefits of the monogamous lifestyle.

The history of monogamy is complicated, as researchers have found that our closest ancestors would not be considered monogamous and it is difficult to pinpoint the exact start of monogamy in some human populations. Examining the ancestral mating systems in humans can be beneficial to assist in establishing a timeline for the introduction of monogamy. Past hominids commonly lived with socially-recognized long-term pair-bonded partners, but would ultimately be considered polyandrous or polygynous (Schact). One important factor to consider is the
impact of sexual dimorphism. Minimal levels of sexual dimorphism in primates have been linked with an increase in monogamous relationships. Primate species that typically have a one male and multiple females relationship tend to have more pronounced size differences between males and females to better assist in competition for mates (Schact). Looking at our ancestors, it can be difficult to accurately tell levels of competition from fossils, as potential rivalries entail more than just physical characteristics.

The onset of monogamy was impacted by a variety of factors, including parental care, cooperative breeding, and co-evolutionary dynamics. Bi-parental care has been heavily linked with the increase of monogamous relationships. However, while it is beneficial in parental care, monogamy and bi-parental care are not one and the same. A study by Schact and Bell in 2016 found how mate guarding, rather than parental care, is a more likely explanation for monogamy (Klug). Monogamy is more likely to occur when the potential of mating with multiple individuals is low and favors the increase of male involvement with offspring (Klug & Schuiling). Thus, in some instances staying with their sexual partner and raising offspring increases reproductive fitness by assisting in kin survival. Furthermore, this demonstrates the certainty of access to said partner’s reproductive ability (Schuiling). Monogamy also favors cooperative breeding by increasing the individual value of staying within one’s own natal group and assisting full siblings with their kin. In non-monogamous societies, individual fitness is maximized by focusing on one’s own offspring as one is more closely related to their own offspring than their siblings (Schact). The coefficient of
relatedness for genetic siblings is r= 0.25, while their own kin is r= 0.5. This explains why monogamy may potentially motivate further evolution of kin-based benefits in any mating system. Across many human populations, older juvenile siblings assist in care for younger siblings or children. This extra help is associated with improved offspring outcomes and maternal fertility (Schact).

Lastly, availability of resources and potential sexual partners have a large impact on the onset of monogamy. When mating pools are strongly male-biased, current partners increase in value, promoting mate-guarding. Thus, the sex-ratio between adult males and females in the population becomes a key factor in the reproductive fitness payoffs for males. For this change in male fitness towards bi-parental care to occur, it needs to double the potential benefits of
offspring survivorship (Bell). This is ultimately due to the decrease in the domain of attraction for male parental care if paternal certainty is unknown (Bell). The onset of monogamy in western societies has not been from one single factor, but the co-evolution of multiple. However, monogamy is still considered relatively inefficient and an intrinsically unstable mating strategy (Schuiling). While in western societies monogamy is the predominant mating system, 85% of the world is still considered polygamous. This implies that polygamy is the preferred strategy and monogamy is only adopted when necessary (Schuiling).

For the monogamous mating strategy to be more beneficial we must induce both societal and environmental changes. Factors such as mate competition, paternity assurance, spatial distribution of females, resource use, and the costs/benefits of parental care all drive the implementation of monogamy across human and animal societies. This implies how monogamy promotes higher individual reproductive fitness if it increases offspring survival. Overall, monogamy, while not the most intrinsically beneficial mating strategy, has become widespread across the majority of western societies. Despite the costs associated with adopting this mating system, monogamy is associated with benefits as well. Favorable outcomes associated with monogamy such as cooperative breeding and offspring parental care have allowed monogamy to increase offspring survivorship and slowly become more prevalent across the world.

References:
Klug H (2018) Why Monogamy? A Review of Potential Ultimate Drivers. Front. Ecol. Evol. 6:30. doi:
10.3389/fevo.2018.00030
Schacht, R., Bell, A. The evolution of monogamy in response to partner scarcity. Sci Rep6, 32472 (2016).
https://doi.org/10.1038/srep3247
Schacht R and Kramer KL (2019) Are We Monogamous? A Review of the Evolution of Pair-Bonding in
Humans and Its Contemporary Variation Cross-Culturally. Front. Ecol. Evol. 7:230. doi:
10.3389/fevo.2019.00230
G. A. Schuiling (2003) The benefit and the doubt: why monogamy?, Journal of Psychosomatic Obstetrics
& Gynecology, 24:1, 55-61, DOI: 10.3109/01674820309042802

Are You the One? The Evolution of Mating Systems as it Relates to Penguin Monogamy

This post is by Vitto Zappa

Do you ever wonder if that person you’re with right now, will be your forever? Insights into human behaviors, including mating behavior, often come from the study of other animals. One group of animals that may provide important insights about monogamy is penguins.

We can see that many species of penguins reside with adopting the monogamous mating system that creates a bond between the pair as they raise their young. The penguins have adopted this lifestyle to form a connection with each other as it is needed to care for and raise their kin as well as making sure each mate is sharing the load that raising a chick can bring. The penguins are brought back to the same mating grounds each year where they come together with one another as they prepare the nest and begin the journey of raising a chick from the egg. The process takes place within a group of hundreds of thousands of other penguins where the mated pair must be able to recognize each other vocally. This alone is an astounding feat that the species manages as they share the bond with one another. Monogamy is a predictable strategy based on the given circumstances that is adopted by many species of penguins brought on by ecological factors that ultimately helps the penguin pair raise their kin. By looking at penguins as the basis for monogamy, this can be used to understand the factors that would tend to favor monogamy among humans and why it is that the human species generally mates for life.

When the two penguins come together the intensified bond is created and this is important for the journey ahead, first starting with finding the proper mate, beginning the nest, and having/raising the egg into maturity. Looking at a more specific species of penguin to answer the question as to, why monogamy, we now turn towards the macaroni penguin. The species of penguin is located around regions in Antarctica. They will begin to mature around the ages of five and six years of age. At this time the penguins will begin to look for a suitable mate and will start to build a nest for the eggs. This all takes place during the summer months in which the penguin colony comes back to the breeding ground all together. The colony looks to be around 100,000 penguins (Oceanwide). Older penguins will return to their original mate by distinguishing the other vocally from the rest of the crowd. This is where the monogamous relationship is beneficial as the two parents will have to split the load of incubating the egg and also hunting for food to feed the pair. Without the support from both parents, the one would starve to death, along with the added loss of the egg and in turn, decline in population. The beneficial cooperation between the two parents, along with the shared bond, gives the pair a chance to successfully raise a chick from an egg while also guaranteeing the survival of themselves.

Penguins are very adapted to the times, and what I mean by this is they share the same gender roles that it takes to raise the kin and take care of one another. Without sharing the load, the penguins would suffer major loss as they have to adapt to each situation as it is presented during egg incubation. The protection of the egg is the number one priority while also guaranteeing their own survival as well. This can be done with splitting the roles of parenting between the two penguins. Once the nest is built, the incubation period for the egg will be around 35 days and during this time, the roles are shared amongst the parents. “During the first shift of 12 days, both parents incubate the egg, then the male goes to sea leaving the female to do the second shift alone. Upon the male’s return for the third shift, the female goes to sea and does not return until the chicks have hatched” (TravelWild). Once the chick hatches the parents are once again united using nest location and vocal signs. The chick will be fed by the mother and once again the process starts over as the two split the roles of taking care of the chick and also fetching more food. Most of the time the female is seen to be out at sea collecting food while the father is actually left behind to protect the chick. The split parenting roles are seen to be an added benefit in turns of the monogamous mating style.

Not all penguins are shown to have adopted this monogamous mating style. The emperor penguins for example have no single mate that they come back to every mating season. This is due to the differed nesting abilities that are completed by each species. Unlike the macaroni penguin, the emperor penguin does not build a nest and uses their feet to hold and incubate the egg (Klug). Without a physical nest in the ground, it is harder for the penguins to come back and meet the same mate each breeding season, as there are thousands in the crowd/huddle. This is why it is at their advantage to seek new mates to guarantee the survival of the chick and themselves. This will have a greater future success for their kin and so on. As the mating partner may seem to differ from year to year for the emperor penguins, the same shared parental care roles are alike with all/most penguin species. This is similar to that of a monogamous relationship as the two parents would share roles and lifestyle adaptations to raise the chick. So, as it seems that monogamy does not suit all penguin species, it is crucial for the specific monogamous traits to be involved to successful guarantee a maturing chick and survival of the family.

Using penguins as the basis for monogamous relationships, we can begin to see how and why humans have adapted to mate for life, and what this means for the future success of their kin. Monogamy in penguins has shown us that there are predictive strategies and traits that may better suit the reproductive and life span efforts of that of humans. The human species is one that is in need of infant care and must nurture their young to achieve a successful survival. The time span that the infant is in need of care is much longer than most other animals and this is why the human young need more care than others. The traits related to penguin monogamy such as, shared parental roles, fetching food, and protection are going to relate to humans as well. Humans have adapted to share the load by sharing parental roles such as getting food, raising the child, working to provide, and much more. This is all very similar to the basis of monogamy shown in the penguin species, all focused on creating a greater success in the future of their kin and own survival. The monogamy shown in humankind also presents the same goal as to produce future reproductive success by raising the kin with the support of both parents.

Figure 1: The figure above shows a pair of Macaroni Penguins that are atop their nest of egg/eggs. The pair is showing just how the two work together in their monogamous relationship to care and raise their kin. It takes two to watch and protect the young as they share the tasks of both caring for each other and for the young one(s).

Figure 1: The figure above shows a pair of Macaroni Penguins that are atop their nest of egg/eggs. The pair is showing just how the two work together in their monogamous relationship to care and raise their kin. It takes two to watch and protect the young as they share the tasks of both caring for each other and for the young one(s)

References

Ancel, André, Michaël Beaulieu, and Caroline Gilbert. “The different breeding strategies of penguins: a review.” Comptes Rendus Biologies 336.1 (2013): 1-12.

Ancel, André et al. “Emperor penguin mates: keeping together in the crowd.” Proceedings. Biological sciences vol. 276,1665 (2009): 2163-9.

Horswill, Catharine, et al. “Survival in macaroni penguins and the relative importance of different drivers: individual traits, predation pressure and environmental variability.” Journal of Animal Ecology 83.5 (2014): 1057-1067.

Klug H (2018) Why Monogamy? A Review of Potential Ultimate Drivers. Front. Ecol. Evol. 6:30.

“Macaroni Penguin.” Oceanwide Expeditions, oceanwide-expeditions.com/to-do/wildlife/macaroni-penguin.

“Macaroni Penguin.” TravelWild Expeditions, travelwild.com/wildlife/antarctica-wildlife/macaroni-penguin/.

“Reproduction.” SeaWorld Parks & Entertainment, seaworld.org/animals/all-about/penguins/reproduction

Searby, Amanda, Pierre Jouventin, and Thierry Aubin. “Acoustic recognition in macaroni penguins: an original signature system.” Animal Behaviour 67.4 (2004): 615-625.

Parasites, Friend or Foe?

This post is by Izabella Witucki

Parasites are very abundant in the world we are familiar with today. They play a large role in maintaining order in our ecosystem. Parasites, by definition, are organisms that need a host or another organism to feed or live off of (Król.,Grzegorz,).  In humans, parasites can be found in the intestinal microbiota, intestinal tract, or blood stream. Some parasites have a symbiotic relationship with their host. For example, Helminths, a type of microbiota parasite, can help with immunoregulatory activity (Partida-Rodríguez). Parasites can also be very harmful to the human population. Malaria, for example, is one of the most dangerous parasites to the human race. Malaria also has one of the most complex life cycles. The parasites, which conceives malaria are well adapted to human evolution. It thrives with reproduction and killing/infecting hosts, evolved virulence, the key balance parasites attempt to reach for optimal life span (Cox.,F, E). Parasites also have a long history with the human race. Throughout the course of evolution, larger parasitic species and parasitic infections have been documented in human history. We have discovered copious amounts of parasites in the past century. These include hookworms, trichinosis or intestinal nematode worms, species of Strongyloides (Cox.,F. E), and millions more, thanks to technological advances. Parasites are crucial to our environment and the current world in which we live in today (Molyneuex.,D.H). They support our ecosystem. The relationship in which we share with parasites is very fine, they make everyday life possible, yet they are also a great threat to our very existence.

The human race has a very long history with parasites, and in the last few decades we have been able to learn much more about the relationship in which we share. The first written records of parasitic infection and parasites stem back to ancient Egypt, right around 3000-400 BC (Cox F.E). However, today we have extensive, and growing, knowledge of parasites due to advances in medicine and technology. Prior, it was difficult to identify, specifically, parasitic infections unless they were visible to the naked eye. Parasitic worms have been well known to the human race, whereas parasites like protozoa were not discovered until more recent centuries -1600-1700s (Yaeger, Robert G). As with every subject, there is still more discoveries and advances to be had. With the current knowledge we have on parasites, humans are able to treat and maintain a healthy balance in life. One which keeps parasites maintained, to the best of our ability, while benefiting from their existence.

Trichuris suis, or the pig whipworm in its adult form. This parasite is further talked about later in the essay. However, it also displays the typical ideology of a “parasite”

The main types of parasites known specifically to humans include protozoa, helminths, and ectoparasites (CDC). Protozoa are one-celled organisms which can be parasitic or free-living within the human bloodstream or intestines. This means that they can be found in the body without having any effect on the host, or they can become harmful. They are transferred through other species, like mosquitos, or through fecal matter/bodily fluids. Helminths, which include tapeworms, flatworms, and roundworms, are all visible to the naked eye unlike protozoa. Helminths live within the human intestines and cannot reproduce in their adult form. Finally, ectoparasites, which include ticks, lice, mites and other insects that benefit from taking human blood/resources (CDC). Commonly, once a parasite enters the system of the host, the body of the host suffers. Virulence varies among species. Malaria, caused by protozoa, specifically the genus plasmodium, has high virulence. Further, the disease targets quick spread and high mortality rates. In contrast, helminths do not reproduce once entered in the host’s system. They slowly take resources from the host in order to maintain its own life cycle. This allows the parasite to thrive without interruption. This means they have low virulence and low mortality rates. Both of these methods work, as parasites have evolved to better attack their hosts. Their sheer diversity and severity of impacts on the human race and other species is what makes them so hard to study.  Despite showing parasites in a negative light, they do have beneficial characteristics even if they may not be immediately obvious.

Parasites, like helminths, can provide many beneficial side effects to the host, new studies have discovered. Specifically in humans, parasitic effects are not normally studied as their methods are seen as unethical. Funny enough, purposefully infecting people with a parasite is highly frowned upon. Despite this, in recent years, more volunteer-based studies have been conducted regarding parasitic infections. Most commonly, researchers have been self-infecting and studying the results. Findings developed an “old-friend theory”, which suggests that the body triggers the correct immune response when in contact with an antigen (Lukeš, Julius). This idea extends to helminths. Researchers found in their studies that by incorporating a small, maintainable, dosage of parasites, like various species of helminths, they help fight against immunological disorders. In the past few decades, cases for allergies, digestive issues, and inflammatory diseases have all been on the rise and climbing. This directly correlates with the rise of body cleansing and eliminations of parasitic organisms within the intestinal microbiota. For example, people infected with helminths tend to have less occurrences of cardiovascular disease, immunological disorders, and even lower cholesterol. In a study using T. Suis eggs, (Trichuris Suis) researcher J.V Weinstock infected a volunteer “host” or patient. The patient had severe Crohn’s disease (CD) and had no success with other treatment forms. Weinstock gave the patient 2500 T. suis eggs, or the pig whipworm (refer to Figure 1), with informed consent. The results found that the parasite colonized without adverse effects and the patient also displayed a significant improvement in their CD symptoms. Parasites do provide beneficial characteristics when in a controlled situation/environment

Lastly, parasites help evolutionary success in species. On a more morbid note, parasites target and eliminate weaker host within a species. Survival of the fittest can be applied to this scenario. This has negative initial effects as members from a society are lost. However, In the long run, parasites actually benefit a societies longevity. In the process of parasitic infections, species gain genetic diversity. Survivors of parasites, then pass down genes to the next generation that are better adapt. So, although they have many negative side effects, it is important to note their significance and possible benefits.

In conclusion parasites are crucial to the balance of life, specifically in humans as well. Parasites carry the stigma that they are only harmful with negative side effects. In recent years, with the rise of research in this field, the notion that parasites may have beneficial qualities and effects on the human body is greater than we anticipated. How exactly parasites benefit humans through different means, is a topic yet to be explored further. The issue with ethical testing is still very prevalent in our day an age. Parasites are still organisms with which we cannot fully control, resulting in possible unplanned complications. In spite of this, we will continue to find ways to study this topic safely and effectively as technology and information on the subject advances. Finally, parasites share a very complex relationship with humans. One which can have beneficial effects, when controlled or through evolution, or they can be a severe threat to the population and health. It is important we continue to explore parasites and their abilities in relation to humans without disturbing natural processes.

Stress Evolution: Does hierarchical social structure influence the evolution of stress response?

This post is by Morgan Williams

Throughout the course of research non-human animal behavior has always been compared with human behavior. This is for a few distinct reasons: animals are easier to collect data on due to their willingness to succumb to some situations humans would not defer from the constraints of society. Animal behavior has always been closely linked to human behavior and animals and humans have always shared similar aspects of life such as genetics, hormone regulation, and responses to stimuli. Of all the animals, mammal behavior has always been the most closely linked behavior to human behavior. This relationship between human and non-human animal behavior has been widely studied and reviewed while looking the stress response in multiple different species of primates including baboons, rhesus monkeys, vervet monkeys, and chimpanzees. Although stresses these animals face is different than those that humans face in our civilization the system of hierarchy present in many of these primate groups distinctly reflect on the hierarchy commonly found in specific aspects of human civilization including family, socioeconomic status, and occupation. Primates’ behavior in the lens of stress response has been closely linked to human stress response due to hierarchical systems, hormone regulation, the physical presentation of stress based off the social structure.

One of the main reasons human and primate behavior is so closely tied together and easily related is due to the hierarchical systems which exist in both their lives. Humans have many different areas of their life involving hierarchical systems. There is family life in which you have the parent figure outranking the children in “status” and even the birth order of the children can act as a form of hierarchical ranking. Beyond family there is work related hierarchical systems including upper ranking employees such as the CEO or President and there are lower ranking employees such as marketers, general sales, etc. and even below this there are temporary workers such as interns or unpaid interns. Work and socioeconomic status go hand in hand as work can determine how much money you make and therefore your socioeconomic status. Often times humans with a low-ranking job have a lower socioeconomic status which again works as a hierarchical ranking system. Primates are similar in the fact they operate in hierarchical systems which include ranking dependent on gender, size, etc. These hierarchy aspects are seen in a study conducted by Robert Sapolsky examining baboon rank and the stress they experience. His results indicate that much like humans, primates, specifically baboons (Genus Papio) in a lower hierarchical ranking experience greater levels of cortisol and therefore more stress (Sapolsky 1982).

In examining primates stress responses relating to that of humans it is important to understand the role hormones and hormone processes play in the stress response. The HPA axis is the central area that is activated in response to stress. When a stressful event occurs the HPA axis works to secrete corticotropin releasing hormones which in turn triggers the release from the pituitary of adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH). After ACTH is released the adrenal gland secretes cortisol which is known as the stress hormone.  Most commonly cortisol is measured via blood, urine or saliva in humans in order to determine stress present and how stress levels change based on circumstance such as stressful events. Primates undergo the same processes in creating cortisol from the HPA axis to the ACTH then converted into cortisol however, where primates and humans differ is in the way cortisol can be measured. Where human cortisol can be measured through saliva, blood and urine, primate cortisol can be measured through blood, saliva, urine, feces, and hair. Each of these sampling methods has advantages and disadvantages associated with it in terms of providing reliable results to researchers. The HPA axis processes and sampling methods are discussed in Melinda Novak’s et al. regarding the hormone processes in rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta), vervet monkeys (Chlorocebus pygerythrus) and chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes).  Novak’s results conclude that rhesus monkeys, vervet monkeys and chimpanzees stress hormones are determined by taking into account 2 main factors: baseline cortisol levels and the reactivity of the system through different stress exposures. The data suggest that different colony management practices and developmental models most greatly impacts the cortisol levels (Novak et al. 2012). The results of this study are similar due to the fact that human cortisol levels go through the same process of production as well as changes based on environmental effects.

Although the physical appearances are rarely compared to that of monkeys due to the crudeness that comes along with these remarks stress creates similar physical responses in primates and humans. The gut or beer belly, as it is commonly referred to in humans, is the greatest similarity seen as a stress response. Carol A. Shively and Stephen M. Day work to address how exactly this comes about in both cynomolgus monkeys (Macaca fascicularis) and humans and what role hierarchical aspects, such as socioeconomic status in humans play a role. The results indicate that those who experience the most stress, in primates low ranking (female monkeys) and in humans low ranking in socioeconomic status, have more abdominal fat due to the increased stress their experience ( Shively and Day 2014).

These photos illustrate the relationship in the physical stress response of humans and primates which was found in Shively and Day’s study that with increased stress levels leads to the development of a larger gut.

Although humans tend to like to acknowledge themselves as more sophisticated than all animals including primates, who are closely related in ancestry the work of Sapolsky, Novak et al., and Shively and Day illuminated the fact that we are closely linked in our stress responses and our processes. Through the work of these researchers, it is concluded that humans and primates stress is depended on hierarchical systems, hormone regulation is the same in it’s processes, and the physical presentation of stress appears the same in primates as it does in humans. Therefore, when it comes to stress humans and primates are eerily similar after all.